The Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1849) were a series of two conflicts fought between the British East India Company and the Sikh Empire in the mid-19th century. These wars led to the British annexation of Punjab and marked the end of the sovereign Sikh state.
The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846)
Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1799–1839) was the last great ruler of Punjab. After his death in 1839, his son Kharak Singh and then Sher Singh became kings. After the killing of Sher Singh, Maharaja Dalip Singh, a minor son of Ranjit Singh, became king. He was only five years old, so his mother, Rani Jindan (Jind Kaur), became his regent. Lal Singh, her paramour, aided her.
However, the Sikh army of Punjab was not happy with Rani Jindan, so they formed a 'Khalsa Panchayat' and started taking decisions independently. Often, the civil administration and the Punjab army colluded. The court intrigues in Punjab further weakened the state.
The English East India Company had recently fought a long war against Afghanistan (1836–42). Though they failed to gain anything substantial, they realized that Punjab was key to gaining better control over Afghanistan. They wanted to make Afghanistan a buffer state between British India and Russia. The British took advantage of Punjab's weak political situation and sought an excuse to wage war against them.
The appointment of Major Broadfoot as the Company's agent at Ludhiana was a well-thought-out plan by the British. He succeeded in allying with Teja Singh, the commander-in-chief, and Lal Singh, the wazir. Both traitors convinced their army to cross the Sutlej on December 13, 1845. Though the Sikh army was still in the territory of their king's dominion, it was enough for the British to declare war against Punjab. It was just an 'excuse,' not a 'cause,' for the war. Even Lord Hardinge, the then Governor-General, was unsure whether this would be accepted in England as a reasonable act. However, the British were desperate to expand their empire to India's natural frontier.
The first battle was fought at Mudki on December 18, 1845, in which the Sikhs were defeated. However, the British also suffered heavily, with losses amounting to 872 soldiers killed and wounded. The second battle took place at Firozshah on December 21, 1845. The Sikhs put up a great resistance. Sir Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief of the British army, called that night the 'night of horror.' The Sikhs had the upper hand. The British army had not eaten for thirty-six hours and had exhausted their ammunition. They were in a state of confusion. Had Teja Singh and Lal Singh not treacherously retired from the battlefield at that critical time, the result would have been different.
The British were now nervous. The Governor-General was worried, so he requested the Sikh Sardars to desert their army and promised them awards and rewards in return. Maharaja Gulab Singh of Jammu was promised Kashmir, and Lal Singh was heavily bribed. However, the Sikh army rallied again under Ranjodh Singh and defeated the British army, led by Henry Smith, at Buddiwal on January 21, 1846. But Ranjodh Singh was defeated at Aliwal on January 28, 1846. The decisive battle, however, was fought at Sobraon, near the Sutlej, on February 10, 1846. Lal Singh revealed the Sikh positions at Sobraon, and Teja Singh mysteriously disappeared from the battlefield. Despite the treachery of their leaders, the Sikh soldiers fought valiantly. They swore by the Granth Sahib not to leave the field alive. The flooded Sutlej turned red, as approximately 10,000 Sikh soldiers and 3,000 British soldiers died.
The British crossed the Sutlej on February 13 and captured Lahore on February 20. A treaty was imposed on Punjab on March 9, 1846, known as the Treaty of Lahore.
Treaty of Lahore
1. The Sikhs had to cede the southern territory of the Sutlej, including the Jalandhar Doab.
2. Punjab had to pay Rs. 1.5 crore as indemnity. However, as the Lahore Darbar was not in a position to pay this, they agreed to transfer territories between the rivers Beas and Indus, including Kashmir and Hazara, to the Company in lieu of one crore rupees. Punjab agreed to pay the remaining 50 lakh rupees in cash.
3. The Maharaja of Punjab gave up all claims over forts, lands, and hills situated between the Beas and Sutlej.
4. The Maharaja agreed to reduce his army. Punjab was not allowed to retain more than 12,000 cavalry troops and 20,000 infantry troops (25 battalions).
5. All 250 guns (artillery) were handed over to the British.
6. British troops were to be allowed to pass through Lahore territories.
7. No European or American could be employed in Punjab without prior British approval.
8. Dalip Singh was recognized as the Maharaja, his mother Rani Jindan as regent, and Lal Singh as Wazir.
9. The Company promised not to interfere in Punjab's internal matters. However, the Company's Resident in Punjab, Sir Henry Lawrence, frequently violated this provision.
Through a supplementary treaty (March 11, 1846), a British force was to remain in Lahore until December, to be maintained by the Lahore Darbar for "protecting" the Maharaja and his citizens. Ironically, this idea was suggested by Lal Singh himself.
The intrigues in the Lahore Darbar continued. Lal Singh was unhappy with Kashmir being handed over to Raja Gulab Singh, so he encouraged Imam-ud-din to oppose Gulab Singh. The British recaptured Kashmir. Lal Singh was exiled on December 16, 1846. A regency was formed for the administration of Lahore, consisting of eight leaders under the 'guidance' of the British Resident. Teja Singh, Sher Singh, Nur-ud-din, and Dina Nath were some of the important leaders.
The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849)
The fate of Punjab had already been decided in the First Anglo-Sikh War. Through the Treaty of Lahore and the formation of Regency, Punjab was fully under the control of the British. The annexation of Punjab was only a matter of time and political decision. The revolt of Diwan Mulraj, the governor of Multan, which is in southwest Punjab, provided an opportunity for the British to wage another war. The British demanded thirty lakh rupees (later reduced to twenty-five lakh rupees) and all the land north of the Ravi. Unable to meet the new harsh conditions, Mulraj tendered his resignation in December 1847. John Lawrence, the Resident, told him to continue until the next arrangement was made. The new Resident, Frederick Currie, sent Kahan Singh Mann as the new Governor of Multan on a fixed salary of Rs. 30,000 per annum. He went with 500 state troops and two British officers—P.A. Vans Agnew and W.A. Anderson. On April 19, 1848, Mulraj handed over the fort of Multan to Kahan Singh Mann, but the two British officials were killed, most likely by dissatisfied Sikh soldiers. They compelled Mulraj to assume their leadership.
The British could easily have suppressed the rebellion at Multan, but they did not. It was part of their strategy so that the revolt could spread to other parts too. It happened exactly as they had planned—the revolt spread to Bannu, Peshawar, and northwest Punjab. Even the Afghans promised to help the Sikhs. Now, they could blame the Lahore Durbar, Daleep Singh, and Rani Jindan for conspiring against the British. They got a big excuse to wage war against Punjab.
In mid-November 1848, Lord Gough, with his troops, crossed the river Ravi and fought against the Sikh army at Ramnagar on November 22. It was an indecisive battle. Multan fell in early January 1849, and on January 13, they fought at Chillianwala. Though the battle remained indecisive, the British suffered heavy losses. According to Hunter, it was an evening battle fought by a brave old man in passion and mourned for by the whole British nation. The British lost 2,357 men, eighty-nine officers, and four guns. Gough, the Commander-in-Chief, was ordered to be replaced by Sir Charles Napier.
But before Napier could take over, the British defeated Punjab at a place called Gujarat, on the bank of the river Chenab, on February 21, 1849. This proved to be the most decisive battle of the Second Anglo-Sikh War, as the Sikhs suffered heavily. They lost their entire camp, chiefs, soldiers, and ammunition. Their allies, the Afghans, led by Dost Mohammad, too, were driven back to the hills.
The Sikhs surrendered on March 12, 1849, at Rawalpindi. An old Sikh warrior exclaimed, "Aaj Ranjit Singh margaya" (Today Ranjit Singh has died). Through a proclamation of Governor-General Lord Dalhousie, Punjab was annexed on March 29, 1849. The East India Company's rule reached up to Afghanistan's border, India's natural frontier. Lord Dalhousie had no hesitation in annexing Punjab, as he had no love for 'titular pageantries' and 'shadowy sovereignties.' Daleep Singh was given a pension of Rs. 50,000 per annum and sent to England for education. The famous diamond Kohinoor was taken away along with the sacred arms of Guru Gobind Singh. To administer Punjab, a Board of Commissioners was established, which had three members—Sir Henry Lawrence as President, his brothers John and Charles, and Mansel. Henry was responsible for 'political,' John for 'land revenue,' and Mansel for 'judiciary.'
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